The First Kashmiri Pandit Exodus (1389–1413)

Historical Context

During the reign of Sultan Sikandar Shah Miri (1389–1413), Kashmir underwent significant Islamization, driven by religious and political motives. Known as “Sikandar Butshikan” (the idol-breaker), Sikandar implemented strict Sharia policies targeting non-Muslims, particularly Kashmiri Pandits (Hindu Brahmins), under the influence of Sufi preacher Mir Muhammad Hamadani and his followers. These policies aimed to consolidate power and transform Kashmir into a predominantly Muslim region, eroding the Hindu and Buddhist cultural heritage that had flourished in the Valley.

Forms of Oppression

Destruction of Hindu Temples and Religious Sites

Systematic Demolition: Sikandar ordered the destruction of numerous Hindu temples, including the iconic Martand Sun Temple, as well as temples at Vijayesan, Chakrabrat, Tripuresvar, Suresvari, Varaha, and Beejbehara. Materials from razed temples were repurposed to build mosques, such as the Jami Masjid in Srinagar and one in Sikandarpora.
Scale: Chronicler Jonaraja notes, “There was no city, no town, no village, no wood, where the temples of the gods were unbroken,” indicating widespread desecration.
Purpose: The destruction aimed to eliminate Hindu religious infrastructure and assert Islamic dominance.

Prohibition of Hindu Practices and Symbols

Banned Rituals: Sikandar prohibited Hindu religious practices, including festivals, rituals, and aesthetic activities like dance, drama, music, and iconography, deeming them un-Islamic.
Restricted Symbols: Hindus were forbidden from applying the tilak (sacred forehead mark), blowing conch shells, or ringing bells, integral to Hindu worship.
Cremation Taxes: Cremation, a key Hindu rite, was restricted, with Hindus required to pay 4 tolas of silver to perform it, adding economic pressure.

Forced Conversions and Massacres

Coercion and Violence: Pandits faced three options: convert to Islam, flee, or face death. Many were forcibly converted through threats, while resistors were killed or enslaved.
Mass Violence: Historical accounts claim thousands of Pandits were killed. Some sources allege up to one lakh were drowned in Dal Lake or burned at Bhatta Mazaar (Pandit graveyard), though exact numbers are uncertain. Chronicler Hasan states, “Hindus were forcibly converted to Islam and were massacred in case they refused.”
Gendered Violence: Hindu women faced rape and enslavement, with many committing suicide by jumping into rivers or wells to escape brutality.

Imposition of Jizya and Discriminatory Taxes

Jizya Tax: Sikandar imposed a poll tax of 4 tolas of silver on non-Muslims, creating financial hardship and pressuring conversion.
Economic Burden: Jonaraja describes Brahmins lamenting the tax as a means to preserve their “jati” (religious identity), with conversion as the alternative.

Destruction of Hindu Texts and Cultural Heritage

Burning of Texts: Sikandar ordered the destruction of Hindu sacred and literary texts to eliminate “shirk” (idolatry). One account states, “Sikander burnt all books the same wise as fire burns hay.”
Sacred Threads: The janeu (sacred threads) of Brahmins were collected from the dead, reportedly amassing seven maunds (approximately 260 kg), suggesting large-scale killings.

Perpetrators

Sultan Sikandar Shah: The primary orchestrator, driven by religious zeal and influenced by Sufi preachers, aimed to Islamize Kashmir.
Sufi Preachers and Nobles: Mir Muhammad Hamadani and hundreds of Persian Sayyids, granted royal patronage, encouraged rigorous enforcement of Islamic law.
Suhabhatta (Sayf-ud-Din): Sikandar’s chief minister, a Hindu convert to Islam, zealously enforced anti-Hindu policies, described by Jonaraja as committing “jatividhvams” (genocide of a community).
Local Converts: Some newly converted Muslims participated in enforcing decrees, though their role was secondary.

Flight, Conversion, and Resistance

Mass Exodus: Thousands of Pandits fled to regions like Kishtawar, Bhadrawah, and other parts of India. Many died during the journey or resorted to begging due to harsh conditions.
Forced Conversion: A significant number of Pandits converted to Islam under duress, drastically reducing the Hindu population. Jonaraja reports that only eleven Brahmin families remained in Kashmir.
Suicide and Resistance: To avoid conversion or violence, many Pandits, particularly women, committed suicide. Others resisted but faced death or enslavement.

Scale and Impact

Demographic Shift: The period marked the near annihilation of Hinduism in Kashmir, transforming the Valley from a hub of Hindu and Buddhist learning into a predominantly Muslim region. The exact number of deaths or migrants is uncertain due to limited contemporary records.
Cultural Loss: The destruction of temples, texts, and practices eroded Hindu political and cultural influence, with long-lasting effects on Kashmir’s religious landscape.
Surviving Population: The Hindu population dwindled significantly, with only a small number of Brahmin families remaining by the end of Sikandar’s reign.

Scholarly Context and Nuance

Primary Sources: Accounts from Jonaraja’s Rajatarangini, Baharistan-i-Shahi, and Persian chroniclers like Hasan and Firishta provide consistent evidence of oppression, though written under later rulers with potential agendas.
Motivations: Historians like Chitralekha Zutshi and Richard G. Salomon suggest Sikandar’s actions were partly driven by realpolitik, targeting Brahmin wealth and institutions to consolidate power, alongside religious zeal. Walter Slaje emphasizes the religious motivation, citing the distinct nature of temple destruction.
Contested Claims: Khalid Bashir Ahmad argues Sikandar installed Hindu inscriptions and repaired temples, but this view is less supported by primary sources and contested by most historians.
Critical Reading: Scholars urge caution in interpreting exaggerated claims, noting that Rajatarangini was commissioned by Sikandar’s successor, Zain-ul-Abidin, who sought to reintegrate Brahmins, potentially influencing its tone.

Conclusion

The First Kashmiri Pandit Exodus under Sultan Sikandar Shah Miri was a period of intense persecution that reshaped Kashmir’s religious and cultural identity. Through temple destruction, forced conversions, massacres, and discriminatory taxes, the Kashmiri Pandit population was decimated, with survivors either fleeing, converting, or resisting at great cost. While historical accounts emphasize the scale of oppression, scholarly analysis highlights a mix of religious zeal and political strategy. This exodus set a precedent for the marginalization of Hindus in Kashmir, with effects persisting in the region’s demographic and cultural landscape.

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