The Fourth Kashmiri Pandit Exodus (1753)

Historical Context

The Afghan Durrani rule over Kashmir (1752–1819 CE), initiated by Ahmad Shah Durrani (Ahmad Shah Abdali), was a period of extreme brutality, heavy taxation, and religious persecution. Following the conquest of Kashmir in 1752, invited by local nobles to end Mughal misrule, Durrani’s regime targeted Kashmiri Pandits (Hindu Brahmins) through policies of violence, forced conversions, and cultural suppression. The Fourth Kashmiri Pandit Exodus, triggered in 1753, was driven by the onset of Afghan governance under Ahmad Shah and his appointed governors. Historical sources such as Gulshan-i-Dastur by Nath Pandit, Bagh-i-Sulaiman by Mir Sa’adullah Shahadabi, Baharistan-i-Shahi, and accounts by historians like P.N.K. Bamzai and Mohammad Yousuf Taing document the severity of this oppression.

Forms of Oppression

Mass Violence and Massacres

  • Gruesome Killings: Pandits faced brutal executions, with Gulshan-i-Dastur describing victims being tied in pairs, placed in sacks (initially grass, later leather for efficiency), and drowned in Dal Lake. Baharistan-i-Shahi notes widespread massacres, particularly under governors like Azad Khan (1783–1785), known for his “savage treatment” of Hindus.
  • Terror Campaigns: Afghan armies, led by commanders like Abdullah Khan Ishak Aqasi, tortured and killed Pandits, with historian Lawrence citing Assad Khan’s boasts of emulating Nadir Shah’s brutality, as per LUBP.
  • Scale: The violence was so pervasive that it triggered the Fourth Exodus, with Pandits fleeing to escape death, as noted in Kashmir: Past and Present.

Temple Destruction and Cultural Suppression

  • Desecration of Sacred Sites: Durrani governors demolished Hindu temples in Srinagar and Anantnag, including the Hari Parbat temple, with idols broken to enforce Islamic dominance, as per Bagh-i-Sulaiman. Kashmir Through Ages notes that religious texts were confiscated and used to build a bund along a Jhelum tributary, now called Suth.
  • Banned Practices: Hindu festivals like Shivratri and pilgrimages to Amarnath were outlawed, and public worship was prohibited, as recorded in Gulshan-i-Dastur. Sanskrit schools (pathshalas) were destroyed, replaced with madrasas, undermining Pandit intellectual traditions.
  • Cultural Erasure: Ahmad Shah ordered Hindus to wear “distinctive marks” on their heads and banned turbans, shoes, and tilaks, humiliating Pandits and signaling their second-class status, as per Ahmad Shah Durrani – Wikipedia.

Forced Conversions

  • Coercion and Violence: Pandits were given ultimatums to convert to Islam or face death, with Gulshan-i-Dastur describing coerced abandonment of sacred threads (janeu). Governor Azad Khan forcibly converted Hindus, executing resistors, as noted in Kashmir Through Ages.
  • Scale: Baharistan-i-Shahi reports widespread conversions, significantly reducing the Hindu population. Those unable to flee faced enslavement or death.

Economic Exploitation

  • Crippling Taxes: Heavy taxation targeted Pandits as landowners and traders, with Baharistan-i-Shahi stating they were “squeezed like a horse leech.” Taxes on Hindu practices, such as cremations and pilgrimages, pressured conversion, as per Kashmir Through Ages.
  • Land Confiscation: Governors like Karim Dad Khan (1779–1783) seized Hindu lands, redistributing them to Afghan loyalists, impoverishing Pandits and undermining their social status.
  • Tribute to Kabul: Ahmad Shah’s demand for tribute from Kashmir, part of his empire’s revenue strategy, led to excessive local taxation, disproportionately affecting Hindus, as noted in New World Encyclopedia.

Humiliation and Social Degradation

  • Degrading Practices: The practice of “Khos” allowed Muslims to ride on Pandits’ backs, treating them as animals, as per Gulshan-i-Dastur. This public humiliation aimed to degrade Hindu identity.
  • Sexual Violence and Enslavement: Baharistan-i-Shahi and Bamzai document the enslavement of Hindu women, forcibly taken to Afghanistan and sold in markets. Kashmir Through Ages cites pervasive sexual violence, with “no married woman passing unmolested” under governors like Ata Muhammad Khan (1793–1801).

Perpetrators

  • Ahmad Shah Durrani: Initiated Afghan rule in 1752, setting a precedent for brutality through plunder, religious discrimination, and tribute demands. His policies, including distinctive marks for Hindus and bans on turbans, humiliated Pandits, as per Ahmad Shah Durrani – Wikipedia.
  • Afghan Governors:
    • Abdullah Khan Ishak Aqasi (1752–1753): Appointed by Ahmad Shah, he looted Hindu homes and imposed harsh taxes, as per Tarikh-i-Kashmir.
    • Azad Khan (1783–1785): Infamous for forced conversions, massacres, and temple destruction, described as a period of “wretched bigotry” in Kashmir Through Ages.
    • Juma Khan Alakzai (1787–1793): Continued economic ruin and religious suppression, as noted in Bagh-i-Sulaiman.
    • Others: Governors like Karim Dad Khan and Nur-ud-Din Bamezei enforced oppressive policies, targeting Pandits’ wealth and faith.
  • Local Enforcers: Afghan soldiers and local collaborators carried out massacres and enforced discriminatory laws, amplifying the governors’ brutality.
  • Religious Hardliners: Driven by a strict interpretation of Islam, Afghan rulers and clerics justified violence to assert dominance over Hindus.

Flight, Conversion, and Resistance

  • Mass Exodus: The 1753 exodus saw Pandits fleeing en masse to Sikh-ruled Punjab, Jammu, and other regions, facing starvation and exposure. Many died en route, as noted in Kashmir: Past and Present.
  • Forced Conversion: Those unable to escape were coerced into converting, with death as the alternative. Baharistan-i-Shahi reports a plummeting Pandit population due to conversions and killings.
  • Desperate Measures: Some Pandits committed suicide or hid to avoid persecution, but survival was challenging under Afghan tyranny. Resistance was limited due to the regime’s brutality.

Scale and Impact

  • Demographic Decline: The Fourth Exodus significantly reduced the Hindu population, leaving only a small, marginalized Pandit community in the Valley, as per Kashmir Through Ages.
  • Cultural Erosion: The destruction of temples, texts, and schools, combined with bans on festivals and practices, severely weakened Hindu cultural institutions, with lasting effects on Pandit identity.
  • Economic Ruin: Heavy taxation, land confiscation, and loss of livelihoods impoverished Pandits, stripping them of their traditional roles as administrators and scholars.
  • Historical Significance: The 67 years of Afghan rule, particularly the 1753 exodus, remain one of the darkest periods for Kashmiri Pandits, marked by widespread violence and cultural erasure.

Scholarly Context and Nuance

  • Primary Sources: Gulshan-i-Dastur, Bagh-i-Sulaiman, Baharistan-i-Shahi, and Tarikh-i-Kashmir provide consistent evidence of oppression, but Persian chronicles may exaggerate Afghan achievements, while Hindu accounts emphasize suffering. Critical analysis is needed, though the consistency across sources lends credibility.
  • Motivations: P.N.K. Bamzai and M.J. Akbar describe Afghan rule as “exemplary brutality,” targeting Pandits due to their religious and economic status. Fabrizio Foschini argues Ahmad Shah prioritized revenue generation over religious persecution, but his governors’ actions undeniably targeted Hindus.
  • Sectarian Dynamics: Abdul Nishapuri notes Durrani oppression also affected Shias and others, driven by Salafi influences and Shah Waliullah’s jihadist calls, aligning with accounts of widespread violence.
  • Exceptions: Some governors, like Sukh Jiwan Mal, showed administrative competence, and Ata Muhammad Khan attempted peace, but anti-Hindu violence persisted under their subordinates.

Conclusion

The Fourth Kashmiri Pandit Exodus in 1753, under Afghan Durrani rule, was a period of extreme persecution marked by mass violence, temple destruction, forced conversions, economic exploitation, and social degradation. Ahmad Shah Durrani’s conquest and policies, implemented by brutal governors like Abdullah Khan, Azad Khan, and Juma Khan Alakzai, triggered a mass exodus to Punjab and Jammu, significantly reducing the Pandit population. The destruction of cultural and religious institutions, coupled with economic ruin, entrenched the marginalization of Hindus in Kashmir. Despite scholarly debates over motivations, primary sources and historical accounts confirm the profound suffering of Kashmiri Pandits during this dark chapter.