The Second Kashmiri Pandit Exodus (1506–1585)

Historical Context

The Chak dynasty (1561–1589 CE), a Shia Muslim dynasty of Dardic origin, ruled Kashmir following the Shah Mir dynasty. Under their rule, particularly during the reign of Sultan Fateh Shah II (1505–1516 CE, intermittently) and the influence of Noorbakshi Shia Sufi missionary Shams-ud-Din Araqi, Kashmiri Pandits (Hindu Brahmins) faced significant religious and cultural persecution. Building on earlier precedents of intolerance, the Chaks’ Shia-driven policies aimed to consolidate power and Islamize the Kashmir Valley, targeting the Hindu minority through violence, economic oppression, and forced conversions.

Forms of Oppression

Religious Violence and Massacres

  • Targeted Killings: During Fateh Shah II’s reign, a notable massacre occurred on the Shia festival of Ashura in 1518 CE, orchestrated by minister Kaji Chak under Araqi’s influence. Baharistan-i-Shahi records that 700–800 prominent Hindus, labeled “infidels and polytheists,” were killed to terrorize the community into converting.
  • Widespread Coercion: The chronicle states, “The entire community of infidels and polytheists in Kashmir was coerced into conversion to Islam at the point of the sword,” highlighting the scale of violence.
  • Later Atrocities: Under subsequent Chak rulers like Yakub Chak, Hindus were reportedly burned alive in their homes, intensifying fear and displacement.

Destruction of Hindu Temples and Sites

  • Systematic Demolition: Araqi, supported by Fateh Shah’s minister Musa Raina (a Hindu convert to Shia Islam), demolished numerous Hindu temples, including the Hari Parbat temple, which was replaced with a mosque. Materials from razed temples were used to construct Islamic sites.
  • Cultural Erasure: Historian Suka notes, “On the advice of Shams Iraqi, Raina arrested men belonging to temples and destroyed them,” indicating a deliberate effort to erase Hindu religious infrastructure.
  • Scale: Baharistan-i-Shahi reports that multiple sacred sites across the Valley were targeted, aligning with Araqi’s mission to Islamize Kashmir.

Desecration of Hindu Symbols

  • Cow Slaughter: To offend Hindu sentiments, as cows are sacred in Hinduism, the Chaks ordered the daily slaughter of one thousand cows, intended to shock Pandits into converting.
  • Suppression of Practices: Hindus faced restrictions on religious practices, with later rulers like Ghazi Chak imposing taxes on those wearing the sacred thread (janeu), further eroding cultural identity.

Economic Oppression and Land Confiscation

  • Jizya Tax: The reimposition of the jizya, a poll tax on non-Muslims, placed a heavy financial burden on Pandits, pushing many into poverty and pressuring conversion.
  • Land Seizures: Brahmin landholdings, a key source of economic and social power, were confiscated and redistributed to Araqi’s followers or converted for Islamic institutions. Baharistan-i-Shahi and Suka report that these seizures marginalized the Pandit community.
  • Looting: Musa Raina’s armed groups looted Hindu properties, targeting families and religious schools to weaken their economic base.

Persecution of Converts Suspected of Reverting

  • Harsh Punishments: Many Hindus converted under duress but secretly maintained their practices. Araqi targeted these “neophytes,” punishing those caught chanting mantras or worshipping idols with torture or execution, as per Baharistan-i-Shahi.
  • Resistance Crackdown: Pandit Nirmal Kanth led a resistance movement, organizing a petition against Araqi’s atrocities. Kaji Chak responded with a brutal crackdown, annihilating Kanth and his followers, further instilling fear.

Perpetrators

  • Chak Rulers: The Shia Chak dynasty, particularly Fateh Shah II, enforced anti-Hindu policies, with later rulers like Ghazi Chak and Yakub Chak continuing the oppression.
  • Shams-ud-Din Araqi: A Noorbakshi Shia Sufi from Talish, Araqi wielded significant influence, inciting forced conversions, temple destruction, and massacres to Islamize Kashmir.
  • Musa Raina: Fateh Shah’s Chief Minister, a Shia convert, led campaigns to loot, murder, and convert Hindus, described in Baharistan-i-Shahi as a “bigot and tyrant.”
  • Kaji Chak: A powerful minister under Fateh Shah, he orchestrated the 1518 Ashura massacre and suppressed Hindu resistance, aligning with Araqi’s mission.
  • Local Militias and Converts: Shia militias and some local converts participated in attacks on Pandit communities, though their role was secondary to state-driven policies.

Flight, Conversion, and Resistance

  • Mass Exodus: The persecution triggered the Second Kashmiri Pandit Exodus (1505–1514 CE), with many Hindus fleeing to regions like Punjab or Jammu to escape violence and preserve their faith. The scale was smaller than the first exodus, but exact numbers are unavailable.
  • Forced Conversion: Tohfat-ul-Ahbab claims Araqi’s followers brought 1,500–2,000 Hindus daily for conversion, with 24,000 Brahman families reportedly converted by force, though these figures may be exaggerated.
  • Resistance Efforts: Pandit Nirmal Kanth’s resistance was crushed, but it highlighted Hindu efforts to oppose persecution. Many who resisted faced death or enslavement.
  • Continued Decline: The Pandit population dwindled further due to ongoing violence and economic ruin, with no significant relief until later rulers.

Scale and Impact

  • Demographic Shift: The Second Exodus further reduced the Hindu population in Kashmir, reinforcing the Islamization begun under earlier rulers. The exact number of migrants or converts is uncertain due to limited records.
  • Cultural Erosion: The destruction of temples, suppression of practices, and land confiscation weakened Hindu traditions and institutions, diminishing the Pandit community’s influence.
  • Long-Term Effects: The Chak period set a precedent for religious persecution, contributing to the marginalization of Hindus and the Valley’s demographic transformation.

Scholarly Context and Nuance

  • Primary Sources: Accounts from Baharistan-i-Shahi, Tohfat-ul-Ahbab, and Rajatarangini by Jonaraja and Srivara provide evidence of oppression, but their pro-Shia or pro-Hindu biases require critical reading. Baharistan-i-Shahi may exaggerate conversion numbers, while Srivara emphasizes Hindu suffering.
  • Motivations: Historian Dean Accardi suggests Araqi’s persecution was partly a political strategy to weaken the Kubrawi-Suhrawardi-Rishi-Non-Muslim coalition, masking power struggles with religious justifications. However, the impact on Hindus was severe.
  • Contested Narratives: Some sources portray Araqi as a cultural figure who established khanqahs, but they acknowledge his role in forced conversions. Claims of widespread temple repair by the Chaks are less supported and contested.
  • Critical Analysis: The extent of persecution is debated, with scholars urging caution against exaggerated claims. The policies undeniably caused significant Hindu migration and cultural loss.

Conclusion

The Second Kashmiri Pandit Exodus under the Chak dynasty, particularly during Fateh Shah II’s reign and Shams-ud-Din Araqi’s influence, marked a period of intense persecution for Kashmiri Hindus. Through religious violence, temple destruction, economic oppression, and forced conversions, the Pandit community faced significant demographic and cultural decline. While political motives may have complemented religious zeal, the impact—mass exodus, conversions, and erosion of Hindu identity—was profound. Historical sources, though biased, consistently highlight the hardship faced by Pandits, with effects shaping Kashmir’s religious landscape for centuries.