The Third Kashmiri Pandit Exodus (1585–1753)

Historical Context

The Mughal period in Kashmir, spanning the reigns of emperors Jahangir (1605–1627), Shah Jahan (1628–1658), and Aurangzeb (1658–1707), saw varying degrees of religious intolerance toward Kashmiri Pandits (Hindu Brahmins). While the Mughals are often celebrated for cultural achievements, their policies in Kashmir included religious discrimination, forced conversions, and socio-economic marginalization of Hindus. These measures, enforced by emperors, local governors, and religious zealots, triggered a steady decline in the Pandit population, culminating in the Third Kashmiri Pandit Exodus. Historical sources like Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, Badshah Nama, Maasir-i-Alamgiri, and Kashmiri chronicles (Baharistan-i-Shahi, Tarikh-i-Kashmir) document the persecution, with intensity peaking under Aurangzeb’s orthodox rule.

Forms of Oppression

Destruction of Hindu Temples and Religious Sites

  • Under Jahangir: Local governors, seeking favor, demolished smaller Hindu shrines in Srinagar and Anantnag, as noted in Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri. Baharistan-i-Shahi records Sardar Itqad Khan desecrating religious sites, breaking idols to assert Mughal dominance.
  • Under Shah Jahan: Governor Zaffar Khan demolished temples, including one at Mattan, replacing them with mosques, as per Badshah Nama. Tarikh-i-Kashmir notes a ban on repairing existing temples and prohibiting new construction, weakening Hindu infrastructure.
  • Under Aurangzeb: Systematic temple destruction intensified, with Maasir-i-Alamgiri documenting orders to raze temples across the empire. In Kashmir, Governor Iftikhar Khan (1671–1675) demolished 50 temples in a single year, including the Vishnu temple at Hari Parbat and shrines in Pampore, leaving them in ruins or converting them into mosques.

Forced Conversions and Violence

  • Under Jahangir: Tarikh-i-Kashmir mentions pressure on Pandits to pay jizya-like levies to maintain their religious identity, with Sardar Itqad Khan using torture to enforce conversions.
  • Under Shah Jahan: Baharistan-i-Shahi describes coerced conversions, with Brahmins forced to abandon sacred threads (janeu) or face imprisonment. In 1634, Pandit Bhavan Nath was executed for refusing to convert, sparking fear, as noted in local chronicles.
  • Under Aurangzeb: Forced conversions peaked, with Baharistan-i-Shahi reporting ultimatums to convert or die. In 1665, Pandit Kripa Ram’s petition against anti-Hindu edicts led to his imprisonment and execution, triggering the Third Exodus, as per Tarikh-i-Kashmir. The 1675 execution of Guru Tegh Bahadur, who advocated for Pandits, further terrorized the community, as cited by org.

Economic and Social Oppression

  • Jizya and Taxes:
    • Jahangir imposed taxes on Hindu pilgrimages to sites like Hari Parbat and Gangabal Lake, limiting access, as per Tarikh-i-Kashmir.
    • Shah Jahan’s heavy taxation to fund projects like the Taj Mahal forced Pandits to sell ancestral lands, as noted in Maasir-i-Jahangiri.
    • Aurangzeb reimposed the jizya in 1679 (4–12 dirhams based on wealth), heavily taxing Pandits, alongside levies on practices like wearing the sacred thread or cremation, as per Maasir-i-Alamgiri.
  • Land Confiscation: Under Aurangzeb, Brahmin land grants were revoked, and properties were seized to fund wars, as recorded in Baharistan-i-Shahi.
  • Exclusion from Administration: Pandits were barred from high administrative posts, with Mughal nobles and Persian bureaucrats favored, reducing their influence, as noted in Tarikh-i-Kashmir.

Suppression of Hindu Practices and Culture

  • Religious Restrictions:
    • Jahangir’s governors discouraged festivals like Shivratri, citing public order, as per Kashmir: Past and Present.
    • Shah Jahan restricted Diwali and Holi celebrations in Srinagar, fining Pandits for lighting lamps or processions, and regulated pilgrimages to Amarnath, as per Kashmir Under the Mughals.
    • Aurangzeb banned Hindu festivals, pilgrimages, and public worship, suspending the Amarnath yatra for decades and punishing ritual performers with flogging or imprisonment, as noted in Maasir-i-Alamgiri.
  • Cultural Marginalization:
    • Jahangir’s patronage of Persian culture sidelined Sanskrit learning, central to Pandit identity, with Persian becoming the administrative language.
    • Aurangzeb prohibited Sanskrit schools (pathshalas), replacing them with madrasas, targeting Brahmin intellectual traditions, as per Maasir-i-Alamgiri.

Forced Labor and Economic Exploitation

  • Under Jahangir: Forced labor was used for constructing pleasure gardens like Shalimar and Nishat, targeting Pandits due to their literacy and administrative roles, as described in Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri.
  • Under Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb: Heavy taxation and land confiscation eroded Pandit economic stability, with Hindu merchants and artisans particularly affected, as noted in Badshah Nama and Baharistan-i-Shahi.

Perpetrators

  • Mughal Emperors:
    • Jahangir: Permitted temple destruction and discriminatory taxes, though influenced by his Rajput wife, Nur Jahan, to maintain some tolerance.
    • Shah Jahan: Allowed temple demolition and religious restrictions, driven by zealous governors.
    • Aurangzeb: Enforced orthodox Sunni policies, including jizya, temple destruction, and forced conversions, marking the peak of oppression.
  • Local Governors: Mughal-appointed governors like Sardar Itqad Khan (Jahangir), Zaffar Khan (Shah Jahan), and Iftikhar Khan (Aurangzeb) enforced anti-Hindu measures with zeal, exploiting Kashmir’s distance from Agra.
  • Religious Zealots: Sunni and Shia clerics, such as Ahmad Sirhindi, justified violence against non-Muslims, influencing Mughal policies.
  • Mughal Nobles and Bureaucrats: Favored over Hindus in administrative roles, they contributed to Pandit marginalization.

Flight, Conversion, and Resistance

  • Mass Exodus: Pandits migrated to safer regions like Punjab, Jammu, Delhi, and Ladakh, particularly under Aurangzeb’s reign, seeking safety and economic opportunities. The migration was moderate but continuous, as noted in Kashmir: Past and Present.
  • Forced Conversion: Many Pandits converted under pressure, especially during Aurangzeb’s stricter policies, as per Baharistan-i-Shahi. Conversion was often a survival tactic to avoid violence or economic ruin.
  • Survival Strategies: Some Pandits paid jizya or practiced their faith discreetly to survive, though their cultural and religious life was severely restricted. Resistance efforts, like Pandit Kripa Ram’s petition and Guru Tegh Bahadur’s advocacy, were met with brutal repression.
  • Resilience: Despite oppression, Pandits preserved their identity through secret worship and migration, maintaining their cultural traditions in exile.

Scale and Impact

  • Demographic Decline: The Mughal period saw a steady reduction in the Pandit population due to migration, conversions, and economic pressures, particularly under Aurangzeb. Exact numbers are unavailable, but the Hindu presence in Kashmir weakened significantly.
  • Cultural Erosion: Restrictions on Sanskrit education, festivals, and pilgrimages diminished Hindu cultural institutions, with Persian and Islamic traditions dominating.
  • Entrenched Marginalization: While less catastrophic than earlier exoduses, the Third Exodus entrenched the socio-political marginalization of Pandits, testing their resilience and reducing their influence in the Valley.

Scholarly Context and Nuance

  • Primary Sources: Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, Badshah Nama, Maasir-i-Alamgiri, Baharistan-i-Shahi, and Tarikh-i-Kashmir provide evidence of oppression, but their Persian (pro-Mughal) or Hindu (pro-Pandit) biases require critical analysis. Exaggerations in conversion numbers or temple destruction are possible but do not negate documented hardships.
  • Motivations: Historian Jadunath Sarkar emphasizes Aurangzeb’s role in systemic persecution, while Audrey Truschke argues Mughal policies were inconsistent, with local governors acting independently. A. Q. Rafiqi notes that Jahangir and Shah Jahan’s pragmatic tolerance was overshadowed by Kashmir’s strategic importance, leading to stricter controls.
  • Contextual Factors: Jahangir’s alliances with Hindu elites and Shah Jahan’s Sufi leanings softened some policies, but the lack of Hindu representation at court and Kashmir’s distance from Agra amplified local oppression. Aurangzeb’s orthodoxy, driven by Sharia enforcement, targeted Hindu elites to curb rebellion, disproportionately affecting Pandits.

Conclusion

The Third Kashmiri Pandit Exodus under Mughal rule (1585–1753) was marked by religious discrimination, forced conversions, temple destruction, and socio-economic marginalization. Jahangir’s sporadic oppression, driven by local governors, escalated under Shah Jahan’s restrictive policies and peaked with Aurangzeb’s orthodox measures, including jizya and systematic temple demolitions. These actions, documented in Mughal and Kashmiri sources, triggered moderate but continuous Pandit migration, cultural erosion, and entrenched marginalization. Despite scholarly debates over the extent and intent of persecution, the cumulative impact significantly weakened the Hindu presence in Kashmir, shaping the community’s resilience and identity in exile.